The term meat refers to muscle of warm blooded four legged animals. The chief ones being cattle, sheep and pigs. Meat also includes the glands and organs of these animals. Meat products include many of the by-products from animal slaughter such as animal gut used for sausage casings, the fat in the manufacture of lard, gelatin and others.

Veal: It is the meat from cattle slaughtered 3 t o4 weeks after birth.
Calues: Less than three months 3 to 8 months
Beef: It is the term applied to meat of cattle over 1 year old.
Lamb: Mutton is the flesh of young bovine animals of both sexes whose age is 12 months or under.
Yearling mutton: Carcasses of young sheep usually from 12 to 20months old one termed yearling mutton.
Mature mutton: Flesh of both male and female.
Pork: It is the meat of swine.

• Proteins of muscle

Meat contains 15-20% protein of outstanding nutritive value.
Myosin - 60% protein of the thick filaments.
Actin - This is major protein of thin filaments and con stitutes 15-30% of myofibrils.
Tropomyosin - this is found in thin filaments.
Troponin- A component of contractile system.

• Structural proteins: 10-17% are present they are mainly collagen, elastin.

Water is the largest single component of muscle by weight. The fat content of meat varies from 5 to 40% with the type, breed, and age of the animal. Carbohydrates are found only in very small quantities in meat. The mineral elements like Calcium and magnesium Zinc iron phosphorus occur either as separate or in a variety of compounds within muscle.

Ageing of meat

If the meat is held cold for sometimes for 1 to 2 days after it has completed rigor mortis, the muscle again becomes soft and pliable with improved flavour and juiciness which is called resolution of rigor. Some changes taken place during this period known as ageing or ripening. Beef is usually the only kind of meat that is commercially aged. Lamb and mutton are occasionally aged. Pork is never aged because of its high fat content. Meats are also graded for quality. The quality, consistency and character of juices or extractives contained in muscle fibre also contribute to the quality of meat.

Tenderising meat

Tenderness is the most desired characteristic in meat. There are different methods of tenderising meat.

1. Cold room storage results in the ripening of meat with tenderising from the meat’s natural enzymes.
2. The mechanical methods of tenderising meats include pounding, cutting, grinding, needling or pinning and the use of ultrasonic vibrations. Mechanical methods cut or break the muscle fibres and connective tissues.
3. The art of using enzymes for tenderising meats is an old one. Wrapping of meat in papaya leaves before cooking results in tenderisation.
4. Meat may be tenderized by the use of low levels of salts. Salts increase the water holding capacity of muscle fibres resulting in tenderness and juiciness.
5. Another method of increasing tenderness in meat is by change of pH.
6. Exercised animals give tender meat.

Curing of meat

Curing brings about the modification in meat that affects preservation, unique flavour, red colour and tenderness due to added curing agents. The ingredients used for curing are common salt, sodium nitrate or nitrite, sugar and spices. Nitrite fixes the red colour of myoglobin, develops flavour and inhibits clostridium botulinum. Spices are added mainly for flavour.

Cuts and grades of meat

Meat carcasses are commonly divided into relatively larger whole sale cuts and these are further divided into smaller retail cuts. Meats are also graded for quality. The quality, consistency and character of juices or extractives contained in muscle fibre also contribute to the quality.

Methods of cooking meat

Tender cuts of beef, lamb and pork may be cooked by these methods:

• Roasting

Roasting in pan over temperature of 163⁰ C ensures the adequate browning of meat for good flavours and good appearance.

• Broiling

It consists of cooking meat by direct radiant heat such as the open fire of a gas flame, live coals or electric oven. Broiling is applied to tender cuts that are atleast 2.5 cm thick. Thinner cuts will be too dry if broiled. Broiling is carried out at a temperature of 176⁰ C until the top side is down. Broiling is a faster method of cooking meat by dry heat than roasting.

• Pan Broiling

Meat is placed in a cold girdle and heated so that meat cooks slowly. Any fat that accumulates the pan is removed so that the meat will continue to pan broil rather than pan fry.

• Frying

Two methods of frying are pan frying and deep at frying. Too high temperature results in inside uncooked and too low temperature results in greasier product.

• Moist heat

This method is used for less tender cuts, meat become tender owing to the conversion of connective tissue to gelatin.

• Braising

In this method meat is cooked with or without the addition of water, the meat is first carefully browned on all sides by broiling, pan broiling or frying. Tomatoes and fruit juices may be added as liquids.

• Stewing

Large pieces of tough meat are cooked in sufficient water until tender.

• Pressure-cooking

This method takes less time. Pressure-cooked meats are less juicy and cooking losses are great.

Rooster: A young chicken, usually 3 to 5 months of age, less flexible than that of the broiler or fryer.
Stag: A male chicken, usually under 10 months of age with coarse skin, and toughened, darkened flesh.
Stewing chicken or fowl: A mature chicken, usually more than 10 months of age, with meat less tender than that of a roaster.
Cock: A mature male chicken, usually over 10 months of age, with coarse skin, toughened and darkened meat.

Composition and nutritive value

Poultry meat has a high protein content about 25% and is comparable in quality and nutritive value to other meats. Like other animal tissues, poultry flesh is a good source of B vitamins and minerals. Because of its high protein to fat ratio, poultry meat is advantageous to persons who must restrict the intake of fats.

Cooking

Raw chicken has little or no flavour and it develops during cooking. The principles of cooking poultry are basically the same as for cooking meats.

Tandoor chicken

The cooking is done in a clay oven called a tandoor. Tender chicken, either whole or cut is used. The skin is removed from the chicken and the flesh is pricked with a fork and sprinkled with salt. Tandoor sauce is then smeared on the chicken which is then left aside for 6-8 hours.

Canning

In canning, the poultry meat is cooked and filled in the can along with the gravy. It is transferred to heat sterilised cans at 212⁰ F for 30 minutes, double steamed and sterilized by cooking in steam under 14 lbs. pressure at 250⁰ F for 60 minutes.

Dehydration

The poultry meat is cut into pieces and cooked in steam for 30 minutes at 10 lbs. pressure. The temperature of incoming air is 150 F to 160 F and drying taking about 3 hours.

Chilling

Poultry can be chilled with cold air or by direct contact with ice or ice water and held at 3⁰ C; keeps well for about 9 days.

Freezing

Each chicken is wrapped in a moisture-proof film and is quick frozen. Small poultry, such as chicken may be placed in a waxed carton before freezing. If the skin of the poultry dries out unevenly, it discolours and mottles, thereby disfiguring the frozen bird. This condition is commonly known as "freezing burn".

Storage

Fresh chilled poultry should be stored a loosely wrapped in the refrigerator at 3⁰ C (38⁰ F) or lower should be used within 1 to 2 days. Poultry left overs (meat, stuffing, broth and gravy) should be refrigerated immediately and stored not longer than 1 to 2 days.

Edible fish are categorized as either fin fish or shell fish. The term fin fish refers to the fishes that have bony skeleton. Shell fish is used to designate both mollusks and crustaceans.

Nutritive value

Fish is an excellent source of protein due to its quality and quantity. They contain around 20% protein. Fish contains less amount of fat compared to meat and poultry. The lipid content of both fish and prawns is very low and varied within a very narrow range of 1-28%. Fish is rich in calcium particularly small fish when eaten with bones. Fish liver oils are excellent sources of fat soluble vitamins. Rohu contains vitamin C. Fish are food sources of niacin and vitamin D.

Spoilage

Fish is considered in prime condition for upto three hours from catch, in average condition from three to six hours and on the way to spoilage from the sixth hour.

Microbiological

Growth of microorganisms like bacteria multiply and attack all tissues also enzymes affect of the quality.

Biochemical

Due to the production of trimethylamine by the action of bacterial enzymes on phospholipids and choline present in fish off flavour is produced.

Preservation and storage

Fish spoils quickly and should be used as soon as possible. It should be kept covered in the coldest part of the refrigerator for no longer than 2 days. Prepackaged fish and shellfish can be refrigerated in the original package for a short time. Fish wrapped in butcher paper should be taken out and wrapped in aluminium foil and plastic wrap. Frozen fish maintains good quality when placed in the freezer immediately after purchase. Freezer temperatures of 0⁰ F or lower are necessary to prevent loss of colour, texture, flavour and nutritive value. Cured fish is best kept covered in the refrigerators. Open canned fish should be used up immediately or refrigerated.

Cold storage

The dressed fish or fillets are preserved by coating with salt powder in the ratio 1 part of salt to 3 parts of fish. The salt powder should contain sodium benzoate.

Preservation

Fish can be preserved by canning, chilling, freezing and curing. Unlike most foods, the enzymes of fish operate at about 5⁰ C, the temperature of the water from which they came. In order to keep fish for any length of time, they must be frozen, canned or cured.

Canning

In canning, fish is dressed and washed.

Chilling

Because, the enzymes that cause spoilage of fish are active at low temperatures and because fish oils become oxidized at fairly low temperature, fish catches subjected to temperatures above freezing are given to fast deterioration.

Freezing

The freezing of fish greatly extends the period of storage and is effective in keeping the fish in a condition similar to that of fresh fish.

Curing

Salting, drying, pickling or smoking can cure fish.

Pickling or smoking

Fish allowed to remain in the salt solution are said to be pickling, e.g. pickled herring, sprats, mackerel and salmon.

Salting and drying

Salting and drying of fish are the most important methods of fish preservation. The process of salting and drying includes the following steps.

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